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Sarsaparilla, A Literature
Review
Botany
|
History
|
Chemistry
|
Pharmacology |
Clinical
Uses |
Adulterants |
Conclusions
INTRODUCTION
A group of medicinal plants from
the genus Smilax, collectively
called sarsaparilla, was
introduced from the New World
into European medicine in the
early 1600's by Spanish traders.
Sarsaparilla soon found a ready
market throughout Europe for
treatment of syphilis and a
variety of complaints that were
considered to yield to the
action of "blood purification."
Since that time, and undoubtedly
centuries before, plants from
genus Smilax have been used
world wide to alleviate many
human ills. Because of a
combination of factors, to be
reviewed in the following paper,
sarsaparilla has seen drastic
swings in popularity - from the
height of success and acclaim as
an important medicinal drug
plant, selling hundreds of
thousands of pounds per year, to
its dismissal as a worthless
nostrum. The following paper
reviews the literature on the
botany, history of use,
chemistry, pharmacology,
clinical use and adulteration of
sarsaparilla.
BOTANY
The name sarsaparilla comes from
the Spanish zarza (a bramble),
parra (a vine) and illa (small).
A small brambly vine. The
ancient Latin name was Smilax,
and is mentioned as such by
Pliny. Linnaeus described this
group of plants under the genus
Smilax, which is still
recognized today by most
botanists from the northern
hemisphere, being placed in the
Lily family, Liliaceae. Some
recent taxonomic literature from
South America places the plants
under a segregate family, the
Smilacaceae.
There are approximately 350
species worldwide in the genus,
occurring mostly in the tropics,
subtropics and Asia. Smilax is
represented by 12 species in the
USA, of which two are from the
West, S. californica and S.
jamesii.
Only a few of the species are
known to be commonly traded as
botanical drugs. The taxonomic
history of the medicinal species
presented in Table 1 (after
Klaus). To this list are added
plants that have also been
called sarsaparilla, and have
been used as an adulterant or
substitute.
TABLE #1
Plants sold as Sarsaparilla
Species Official from:
Honduran Sarsaparilla
Smilax sarsaparilla L 1820 to
1842
Smilax officinalis 1842 to 1942
Smilax Regelii Killip & Morton
1942 to present
Mexican Sarsaparilla
Smilax medica Chamisio &
Schlectendal 1882 to 1942
Smilax aristolochiaefolia Miller
1942 to present
Jamaican Sarsaparilla
Smilax ornata Hooker 1905 to
1942
Ecuadorian Sarsaparilla
Smilax spp. 1942 to 1959
Smilax febrifuga Kunth 1960 to
present
Indian Sarsaparilla
Hemidesmus indica
(India) not official
American Sarsaparilla Not
official
Aralia nudicaulis (Eastern US)
European Sarsaparilla, Italian
Smilax Not official
Smilax aspera (S. Europe)
False China-root not official
Smilax Psuedo-China (S.E. US.)
China-brier, Bullbrier not
official
Smilax Bona-mox (S.E. US.)
Morphologically, the plants are
mostly woody vines, that climb
by means of a pair of tendrils
on the petiol of wide
prominently ribbed simple
leaves. The flowers are small,
regular, greenish, yellowish or
bronze, and dioecious (separate
male and female flowers). They
occur in umbels on auxiliary
peduncles. The fruit is a small
black, blue or red berry.
Knotty, short rhizomes typically
grow in damp forest soil. The
prickly stems at times climb
high into the canopy. This is
one reason (the extreme leaf
variation is another) for the
years of taxonomic confusion
among the medicinal species: the
flowers and fruits are often out
of reach of would be collectors.
HISTORY OF USE
The original sarsaparilla was
"observed by Schiede on the
Eastern slope of the mountains
(in Mexico). He was told that
its roots gathered all year
long, dried in the sun and tied
into bundles, being carried to
Vera Cruz for export." (1879)
Before 1530, when sarsaparilla
was introduced into European
trade from New Spain (Mexico),
several species were being used
for medicine in their native
lands.
Smilax aspera was known and used
by the ancients. Dioscorides and
Pliny recommended the leaves of
this plant against "deadly
poisons, weather they be drunk
before or after." Its nature was
considered to be "dry and hot",
a reference to the ancient
system of characterizing
medicinal plants.
Sarsaparilla was mentioned by
many early writers, who observed
it in many parts of Southern
Europe and North Africa. The
young shoots were eaten, and in
Roman times the mature vines
were worn as garlands at
festivals of Bacchus, by the
common people. This practice was
generally "looked upon as ill
omened, and consequently
banished from all sacred rites -
receiving this mournful
character from the maiden
Smilax, who upon her love being
slighted by the young Crocus,
was transformed into this shrub
(Pliny 16:63)."
Gerard, in his "Great Herbal",
mentions that the Honduran and
Peruvian sarsaparilla "are a
remedy against long continual
pain of the joints and head, and
against the cold." Spanish
sarsaparilla, S. aspora, he
takes to be similar, but weaker
in action.
According to Monards, the
Spanish botanist, Mexican
sarsaparilla was introduced into
Europe medicine about 1536 at
Seville. Other species soon
followed from Guatemala and
Honduras. They were highly
regarded as a remedy for
syphilis, which was also
imported from the new world in
the late 1400's, and for
rheumatism. from Spain, the herb
found its way into the
pharmacists shops all over
Europe and England.
Few plants have had the rise and
fall in popularity that
sarsaparilla has had. When it
was introduced it was considered
remarkably effective for diverse
chronic diseases, and many
doctors of the time wrote about
its benefits. Generally
considered an alterative tonic,
blood purifier, diuretic and
diaphoretic, it was given alone
or in combination with other
herbs, as well as with mercury
for long-standing venereal
disease.
Pereia, a leading physician in
London in the mid nineteenth
century, felt that sarsaparilla
works when "the malady is of
long continuance, and the
constitution is enfeebled and
emaciated, either by repeated
attacks of the disease, or by
the use of mercury," and that it
is "the great restorer of
appetite, flesh, color, strength
and vigor." Pereira gives
obstinate skin disease, such as
chronic abscesses as a further
indication. He concludes that
"the great advantage of
sarsaparilla over many other
alteratives and tonics, is, that
although it may fail in doing
good, it never does any harm
beyond that of now and then
causing slight disorder of
stomach." Although sarsaparilla
found favor with many
physicians, the same charges
that its chief benefit was to
make money for its distributors
were made then, as today. That
it was profitable and popular
can be seen by the 176,854 pound
imported into England alone
during 1831.
Perhaps because of inferior
quality roots, adulteration and
substitution, sarsaparilla fell
completely out of favor in the
late eighteenth century, but it
was strongly promoted again
about 1750 by Fordyce and
others, as a remedy for
syphilis. Its renewed popularity
continued until the time of
Cullen, the famous English
doctor, about 1800. Cullen
considered it completely inert,
and was quite influential in his
day.
Sarsaparilla was again in favor
around 1850, when it was
official in the U. S.
Pharmacopoeia. It was
recommended by Wood, the
co-author of the U.S.
Dispensatory, for "the treatment
of secondary syphilis." It
continued to be official until
1950.
During the turn of the century,
highly promoted patent remedies
of dubious efficacy, considered
"quack" remedies by regular
doctors, were in their heyday.
Foremost among these were
various sarsaparilla remedies,
notably Ayer's Sarsaparilla,
which "made the weak strong".
This preparation sold hundreds
of thousands of bottles all over
the world, with indications for
weakness and disease in nearly
any organ of the body.
"Disorders of the liver, stomach
and kidneys, as well as
tuberculosis, tumors,
rheumatism, female weakness,
sterility, pimples and syphilis,
could be cured by just one
remedy, Ayer's Sarsaparilla."
From our perspective today,
whether or not one believes in
the efficacy of sarsaparilla as
a long term tonic, diuretic and
blood purifier, the unbridled
claims listed above might seem
to be nothing more than pure
commercial hype. No wonder that
Congress stepped in and passed
the 1906 Food and Drug Act, in
an attempt to control the
extravagant claims made for
patent commercial products.
Smilax China is an ancient drug
plant from China. It was
reported in the older literature
to be imported into Europe in
the seventeenth century, under
the name China Root. Recent work
has indicated that the original
China Root is actually Poria
cocos (a tuber-like underground
fungus which grows in
association with the roots of
various conifers) or Smilax
glabra. Lindley, the eminent
botanist, said of this plant:
"Smilax china has a large fleshy
root, the decoction of which is
supposed to have virtues equal
to that of sarsaparilla in
improving the health after the
use of mercury. According to the
Abbe Rochon, the Chinese often
eat it instead of rice, and it
contributes to make them lusty."
(This description dates from
1830)
Smilax china is taken in
decoction for boils and
abscesses, rheumatoid arthritis,
urinary tract infection,
enteritis, diarrhea and as an
antidote to mercurial poisoning
-- nearly the same indications
as sarsaparilla. According to
Traditional Chinese Medicine, it
has cooling properties and
removes excess moisture,
promotes diuresis, is tonic and
antimalarial.
In the USA, several species of
Smilax have been widely used as
a substitute for sarsaparilla,
and for other medicinal and food
purposes. The principle species
used was S. Pseudo-China, being
the one "generally preferred in
medicine as an alterative." It
also formed the basis of many
diet drinks among the
"unlicensed faculty". "from the
tubers, with maize, sassafras
and molasses the Negroes of
Carolina manufacture "a very
pleasant" beer." It was also
used to fatten hogs in South
Carolina. A famous Eclectic
physician, John King, thought S.
Smallii (S. lanceolata) more
effective in syphilis than any
of the commercial species.
CHEMISTRY
The main active fraction of the
various species has usually been
considered to consist of saponin
glycosides. since they are
steriod-like compounds, and
because of its reputation as a
male rejuvenating tonic, many
have made claims that
sarsaparilla contains active
steroid hormones.
Paltta first isolated parillin,
probably a mixture of saponin
glycosides (it foamed upon
shaking with water) in 1824.
this mixture has also been
called smilacin, salseparin,
sarsaparillin and parallinic
acid. Fluckiger determined that
there was about 0.19% in an
unidentified Smilax species.
The major saponin glycosides
with steriod like nuclei (from
the new world species) are now
recognized as sarsaponin,
smilacin,
sitosterol-d-glucoside, and
pollinastanin. they occur in the
plants along with their genins
and other steroids as
sarsapogenin, smilgenin,
sitosterol, stigmasterol and
pollinastanol. One modern figure
indicated the usual level of
steriod saponins in unidentified
Smilax species, indicated to be
sarsaparilla, as 1.8-2.4%.
(Wagner, H., et al. 1984)
Other constituents include,
paroaparic acid, sarsapic acid,
resin, volatile oil, starch, a
mixture of fatty acids
(palmitic, stearic, behenic,
oleic and linoleic), oxalic acid
and a polysaccharide.
The mineral ions were quantified
in the dry root of Honduran
sarsaparilla and determined to
be 1.25% SiO, 0.42% Al, 0.41%
Ca, 0.30% Mg, 1.25% K and 0.46%
Cl. The vitamin C content of
Mexican sarsaparilla, S.
aristolochiaefolia (dry root)
was determined to be 19.4 mg%.
More recent work has been done
on Smilax aspera, the European
species, than on the new world
species. The constituents
identified include sarsapogenin,
tigogenin (var. mauritanica),
asperoside, 31-norcycloartanol,
and from the essential oil,
methylvanillin and piperonol.
Diosgenin, a common phytosterol,
has been isolated from Smilax
china.
PHARMACOLOGY
After all the interest in
sarsaparilla from both the
medical profession, public and
patent medicine manufacturers
over the years, it is somewhat
surprising that so little
clinical and laboratory testing
has been done on it. There is no
sound evidence in the scientific
literature to support the many
fantastic claims that have been
made for sarsaparilla,
especially as a male rejuvenator
or energy tonic. Nonetheless,
one cannot completely rule out
the possibility that those
plants have pharmacological
activity. Perhaps, as the famous
American physician, and
co-author of the US
Dispensatory, George Wood,
suggest:
"It seems to me impossible to
resist the conclusion ... that a
remedy cannot be quite inert,
which has so often risen into
notice after neglect, and which,
though considered useless by
many, has the voice of the
greater number, and those
probably the most experienced,
in its favor."
There are a few interesting
studies on the pharmacology of
sarsaparilla that bear mention,
which are summarized in table 1.
It must be noted that all of the
clinical studies cited in the
literature are from the period
1933-1951. None of the studies
are performed blind, some of
them being reports of subjective
improvement among subjects.
TABLE #1
Findings Reference
"Renotrat", a sarsaparilla
preparation, increased urinary
excretion of Uric Acid resulting
in a 30% drop in blood levels
Humpert, Fritz (1933) Klin.
Wochschr 12; 1696 (CA 28:828)
Sarsaparilla aqueous extract had
a beneficial effect in cases of
eczema and psoriasis. Leclerc,
Henri (1938) Presse Med. 46:284
(CA 32:5505) Sarsaparilla root
"showed diuretic action in the
rat and increased the
elimination of chloride and uric
acid" Jaretzky, Robert (1951)
Pharmazie 6: "An extract of
Smilax ornata corresponding to
15g of root given twice a day
for several months gave better
results in lepers than did
sulfones." 115-117 Rollier, R,
et 776-780. al. (1951). Maroc
med. 30: (CA 46: 1719g).
One recent question being hotly
discussed in the herb industry
is the nature of sarsaparilla's
action on the sexual hormones,
if any. Sarsaparilla has been
widely touted as a male sexual
rejuvenator, some even
contending that it contains
actual human testosterone. This
report, however, (by G. Singer)
is from non-technical advocacy
literature. Commercial products
abound that either openly
declare sarsaparilla to be a
good source of anabolic steroids
or infer it. The major market
seems to be centered around the
recent "body building" craze. It
is known that many athletes,
both professional and amateur
use steroid drugs which could be
harmful to health. Officials
have banned such use, and
initiated testing to safeguard
against many who ignore the
regulations. This coupled with
several highly publicized deaths
from steroid use may be the
reasons for the present search
for safe and legal substitutes.
Neither scientific study, nor
folklore evidence supports the
use of Smilax for increasing
muscle mass.
Chemical analysis to date has
found no testosterone-like
compounds in sarsaparilla. One
report indicated that the drug
contains progesterone and cortin
(hormone from the suprarenal
cortex), but with no reference
to actual scientific research.
According to the recent article
by Singer, Russel Marker and
Ewald Rohrman "first found
testosterone, the male sex
hormone, in sarsaparilla."
Marker is well known for his
work in the area of steroidal
saponins, but a review of his
research, mostly published in
the Journal of the American
Chemical Society in the 1930's
reveals only that he was able to
synthetically produce
testosterone from sarsapogenin
(a component of some Smilax
species) and diosgenin. An
interesting New York Times
article entitled "Sarsaparilla
Root has Vitality Drug" and a
book on aphrodisiacs by Walton
both cite work by a
Hungarian-born researcher,
living in Mexico, by the name of
Emerick Solmo. In Walton's book,
it is claimed that Solmo:
"removed the bark from the root,
[pulverized it], and extracted
by various processes some
odorless white crystals. These
were then mixed with a saline
solution similar to the fluids
of the body, and used as a
solution for injection, or,
conversely, made up in the form
of tablets. Many thousands of
clinical tests were made with
this substance on both animals
and human beings, and it was
conclusively proved that
"sarsaparilla testosterone"
possessed the identical
properties of animal and
cholesterol testosterone."
A literature search does not
turn up any papers on Solmo's
work, but they may be published
in a Mexican journal that is not
listed in the major indexes.
Testosterone, estradoil,
cortisone and several of their
derivatives could not be
detected in Smilax officinalis
(=S. regelii) using thin layer
chromatography. A report of the
recent tests, signed by A.J.
Vlietink of Laboratorium voor
Farmacognisie, Dept.
Farmaceutische Wetenschappen,
Wilrijk, Belgium stated that
"none of the reference hormones
could be ascertained in a
concentration of more than
0.008%. In reviewing this
report, it must be kept in mind
that the tests were only
performed using one commercial
sample, supplied by
Gepharma-Netherland, and not a
vouchered sample. This leaves
the question open as to its true
identity.
Testosterone has not been
reported to occur in any plant
and other human hormones are
rare in plants, being found only
in very small quantities in some
pollens and seeds. While it is
still possible that sarsaparilla
may have hormonal effects, the
many claims being made for this
plant are made without the
backing of substantive
scientific research. Further
testing should be done, using
vouchered samples of at least
the three most commonly traded
species, S. aristolochiaefolia,
S. officinalis and S. ornata.
These samples should be as
freshly dried as possible, to
avoid degradation of active
constituents. Most of the past
work with sarsaparilla must be
called into question, because of
lack of documented starting
material (both for freshness and
identity). Lastly, the plants
should be tested for their
possible active metabolites
through changes in blood serum
levels and urinary excretion of
active hormones.
CLINICAL USES
Much has been written about the
clinical uses of sarsaparilla,
from the mid-1600's until the
mid-1900's, three hundred years.
As mentioned, some physicians
felt that sarsaparilla was inert
and had no clinical value, while
many others used it.
Determining whether or not a
particular drug plant has
activity should be based, in
part, on the folk record of
traditional use. In Jamaica,
Cuba and Mexico, several species
of Smilax are used in indigenous
medicine. These include Smilax
mexicana, S. papyracea, S.
regelii, S. havanensis and S.
domonhensis. Morton documents
the traditional uses of these
species for blood purification,
syphilis, as a stimulant and
tonic, for gout, rheumatism,
skin conditions, and as an
"aphrodisiacal potion, to
promote man's nature or courage
(with other plants)."
The question must be asked
whether these uses were in
practice before the Spaniards
invaded the new world. In North
America, the Amerindians used
several Smilax species,
including Smilax bona-nox, S.
glauca, S. herbacea, S.
laurifolia, S. pseudo-china, S.
rotundifolia and S. tamnoides
for various complaints. These
include its use as a general
tonic, "to make one young", for
urinary disturbances,
rheumatism, stomach troubles,
kidney troubles, and as a
gynecological aid. At least
seven different tribes used
these plants, suggesting that
some of the uses might have been
established without the
influence from Spanish or other
European settlers. If so, the
uses are remarkably coherent
with those of the uses reported
from European medicine.
If Smilax does prove to have
useful clinical applications,
several points are worth
emphasizing.
1: The quality of the drug is
important, if one is to expect
clinical activity. The best
sarsaparilla imparts a slightly
nauseating, acrid taste to the
mouth. The more acrid the drug,
the better, even to the point of
inducing a burning sensation in
the throat. Presumably, this
response is stimulated by the
presence of saponins, which are
known to be irritating to the
mucous membranes. It is the
author's experience that
Jamaican sarsaparilla is only
mildly acrid, Mexican and
Honduran, more so. When the drug
is old, much activity has been
probably lost. Uneven quality
may be one reason for the swings
of popularity the drug has
experienced. If Smilax saponins
prove useful, chemical assays by
HPLC or TLC could be an
invaluable in ascertaining
quality.
2: Sarsaparilla was not
considered by early
practitioners to be fast-acting.
Many practitioners who have
written about its action have
stated that its use must be
persisted in. This can be seen
by the following statement from
Wood's Therapeutics (1883).
"The curative effect of
sarsaparilla is very slow,
because the alterative change of
tissue upon which its efficacy
probably depends, is also slow;
and this very slowness may
constitute one of its real
merits; as it seems difficult
seriously to abuse a remedy of
such feeble physiological
action. But gradually, under its
use, the appetite often
increases, the general nutrition
improves, the secretions assume
their normal state... A new and
healthy tissue has taken the
place of the old and diseased."
Wood and other practitioners
used sarsaparilla mostly for
syphilis, chronic rheumatism,
various forms of scrofulous
disease (tuberculosis of the
lymphatic glands) and skin
diseases. Pereira says of it:
"acts as a powerful and valuable
alterative tonic (Term
originally used for drugs said
to reestablish healthy functions
of the system). Its continued
use is often attended with
improvement of appetite and
digestion, augmentation of
strength, increase of flesh..."
Phillips claims in his "Materia
Medica" that the continued use
of sarsaparilla causes an
"increase of flesh and muscular
power," through improving
digestion and assimilation. He
asserts that it is both a
medicine and a food. Formerly,
the Smilax species with the
highest starch content were
considered the most efficacious.
Sarsaparilla has also been
extensively used in the food
industry as a flavor component
and foaming agent in root beer,
frozen dairy desserts, candy and
baked goods, and it has been
approved for food use by the
FDA.
As of 1985, sarsaparilla was
official in the pharmacopoeias
of Belgium, China, Japan and
Portugal as a flavoring extract
or decoction. Japan and China
specify Smilax glabra.
Sarsaparilla is most often used
as a water decoction, liquid
extract or compound decoction.
The liquid extract is made by
percolating the powdered drug
with and equal weight to volume
of 20% ethanol and 80% distilled
water menstruum with 10%
glycerin added.
The British Pharmaceutical Code
gives the official formula for
the compound decoction as
follows:
Sarsaparilla, 125 g; sassafras
root, 12.5 g; guaiacum wood,
12.5 g; licorice 12.5 g;
mezereon, 6.25 g and distilled
water to 1L.
"Macerate the sarsaparilla root,
licorice and mezereon for one
hour with 1500 ml of distilled
water, then boil for ten
minutes, cool, strain, and, if
necessary, pour sufficient
distilled water over the
contents of the strainer to
produce the required volume."
The dose is given as 1/4 to 1
fluid oz.
(Note: HerbalGram does not
recommend this decoction for any
medical purpose and hastens to
add that sassafras is banned
from food use because it
contains the carcinogenic
chemical safrole. Mezereon is
reportedly toxic.)
ADULTERANTS
Sarsaparilla has been commonly
adulterated on the commercial
market throughout its history of
use. The most common adulterant,
still in use today, is
"Hemidesmus indicus" (=Periploca
indica), the Indian
sarsaparilla. The author has
seen commercial products labeled
"Mexican sarsaparilla" that
actually contained "Hemidesmus".
The two are easy to distinguish.
Hemidesmus is dark brown, has a
slight bitter taste and a strong
smell of vanilla. Species of
Smilax will have a bland taste,
no smell and a light color.
The different sarsaparilla
(Mexican, Jamaican and Honduran,
etc.) can be differentiated by
appearance when in their whole
form. When a powdered sample is
to be tested for authenticity,
there are many microscopic
descriptions and photographs in
the literature for reference,
and although some skill is
required, microscopic analysis
can provide conclusive evidence
of adulteration.
Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
is a good method for determining
the presence of sarsaponin,
which might rule out some
adulterants.
Other common adulterants
mentioned in the literature
include Carex arenaria (German
sarsaparilla), Agave cubensis,
Muehlenbeckia. Other
non-official species of Smilax
are also substituted, namely, S.
aspera (Portuguese
sarsaparilla), S. prolifers
(Italian sarsaparilla), S.
excelsa (Spanish sarsaparilla),
S. rotundifolia (Syrian
sarsaparilla), and S. glauca
(Macedonian sarsaparilla).
CONCLUSIONS
As the reader can surmise from
the foregoing paper, there is no
"scientific" rationale for the
medicinal use of sarsaparilla.
This is not to say that it is
inactive or useless as a source
of medicine. A long history of
folk use for parallel ailments
in several diverse cultures may
provide clues to the nature of
its activity. However, research
to determine the nature of its
activity, if any, as well as to
set standards for active
species, levels of active
constituents and fingerprinting
of true species and adulterants,
using TLC and high-pressure
liquid chromatography (HPLC),
still awaits interested
researchers.
As most people in the world
still use medicinal drug plants
for their primary health care,
and their popularity is
increasing in this country, as
well as other industrialized
nations, sarsaparilla may find a
place in the medicine of the
future.
About the Author:
Christopher Hobbs, from Santa
Cruz Calif. is a third
generation botanist who
researches and writes about
medicinal herbs.
Reprint number 101 from HerbalGram No. 17, Summer
1988
by the American Botanical
Council.
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